Statistical Mechanics
Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force. Statistical mechanics, sometimes called statistical physics, can be viewed as a subfield of physics and chemistry.
It provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level. In particular, it can be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual molecules.
This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main advantage of statistical mechanics over thermodynamics. Both theories are governed by the second law of thermodynamics through the medium of entropy. However, entropy in thermodynamics can only be known empirically, whereas in statistical mechanics, it is a function of the distribution of the system on its micro-states.
Kinetic Theory
Kinetic theory (or kinetic theory of gases) attempts to explain macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. Essentially, the theory posits that pressure is due not to static repulsion between molecules, as was Isaac Newton's idea, but due to collisions between molecules moving at different velocities. Kinetic theory is also known as the kinetic-molecular theory or the collision theory.
The theory for ideal gases makes the following assumptions:
The gas consists of very small particles, each of which has a mass or weight in SI units, kilograms.
The number of molecules is large such that statistical treatment can be applied.
These molecules are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container.
The collisions of gas particles with the walls of the container holding them are perfectly elastic.
The interactions among molecules are negligible. They exert no forces on one another except during collisions.
The total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to the volume of the container. This is equivalent to stating that the average distance separating the gas particles is relatively large compared to their size.
The molecules are perfectly spherical in shape, and elastic in nature.
The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the temperature of the system.
Relativistic effects are negligible.
Quantum-mechanical effects are negligible. This means that the inter-particle distance is much larger than the thermal de Broglie wavelength and the molecules can be treated as classical objects.
The time during collision of molecule with the container's wall is negligible as comparable to the time between successive collisions.
The equations of motion of the molecules are time-reversible.
Sunday, August 10, 2008
Friday, August 08, 2008
Thermodynamics---Lesson 5
Thermodynamic Processes
A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a final state. Paths through the space of thermodynamic variables are often specified by holding certain thermodynamic variables constant. The pressure-volume conjugate pair is concerned with the transfer of mechanical or dynamic energy as the result of work.
An isobaric process occurs at constant pressure. An example would be to have a movable piston in a cylinder, so that the pressure inside the cylinder is always at atmospheric pressure, although it is isolated from the atmosphere. In other words, the system is dynamically connected, by a movable boundary, to a constant-pressure reservoir.
An isochoric process is one in which the volume is held constant, meaning that the work done by the system will be zero. It follows that, for the simple system of two dimensions, any heat energy transferred to the system externally will be absorbed as internal energy. An isochoric process is also known as an isometric process or an isovolumetric process. An example would be to place a closed tin can containing only air into a fire. To a first approximation, the can will not expand, and the only change will be that the gas gains internal energy, as evidenced by its increase in temperature and pressure. Mathematically, δQ = dU. We may say that the system is dynamically insulated, by a rigid boundary, from the environment.
An isothermal process occurs at a constant temperature. An example would be to have a system immersed in a large constant-temperature bath. Any work energy performed by the system will be lost to the bath, but its temperature will remain constant. In other words, the system is thermally connected, by a thermally conductive boundary to a constant-temperature reservoir.
An adiabatic process is a process in which there is no energy added or subtracted from the system by heating or cooling. For a reversible process, this is identical to an isentropic process. We may say that the system is thermally insulated from its environment and that its boundary is a thermal insulator. If a system has an entropy which has not yet reached its maximum equilibrium value, the entropy will increase even though the system is thermally insulated.
An isentropic process occurs at a constant entropy. For a reversible process this is identical to an adiabatic process. If a system has an entropy which has not yet reached its maximum equilibrium value, a process of cooling may be required to maintain that value of entropy.
Any of the thermodynamic potentials may be held constant during a process. For example:
An isenthalpic process introduces no change in enthalpy in the system.
A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system proceeding from an initial state to a final state. Paths through the space of thermodynamic variables are often specified by holding certain thermodynamic variables constant. The pressure-volume conjugate pair is concerned with the transfer of mechanical or dynamic energy as the result of work.
An isobaric process occurs at constant pressure. An example would be to have a movable piston in a cylinder, so that the pressure inside the cylinder is always at atmospheric pressure, although it is isolated from the atmosphere. In other words, the system is dynamically connected, by a movable boundary, to a constant-pressure reservoir.
An isochoric process is one in which the volume is held constant, meaning that the work done by the system will be zero. It follows that, for the simple system of two dimensions, any heat energy transferred to the system externally will be absorbed as internal energy. An isochoric process is also known as an isometric process or an isovolumetric process. An example would be to place a closed tin can containing only air into a fire. To a first approximation, the can will not expand, and the only change will be that the gas gains internal energy, as evidenced by its increase in temperature and pressure. Mathematically, δQ = dU. We may say that the system is dynamically insulated, by a rigid boundary, from the environment.
An isothermal process occurs at a constant temperature. An example would be to have a system immersed in a large constant-temperature bath. Any work energy performed by the system will be lost to the bath, but its temperature will remain constant. In other words, the system is thermally connected, by a thermally conductive boundary to a constant-temperature reservoir.
An adiabatic process is a process in which there is no energy added or subtracted from the system by heating or cooling. For a reversible process, this is identical to an isentropic process. We may say that the system is thermally insulated from its environment and that its boundary is a thermal insulator. If a system has an entropy which has not yet reached its maximum equilibrium value, the entropy will increase even though the system is thermally insulated.
An isentropic process occurs at a constant entropy. For a reversible process this is identical to an adiabatic process. If a system has an entropy which has not yet reached its maximum equilibrium value, a process of cooling may be required to maintain that value of entropy.
Any of the thermodynamic potentials may be held constant during a process. For example:
An isenthalpic process introduces no change in enthalpy in the system.
Thursday, August 07, 2008
Thermodynamics---Lesson 4
Statistical Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, statistical thermodynamics is the study of the microscopic behaviors of thermodynamic systems using probability theory. Statistical thermodynamics, generally, provides a molecular level interpretation of thermodynamic quantities such as work, heat, free energy, and entropy. Statistical thermodynamics was born in 1870 with the work of Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, much of which was collectively published in Boltzmann's 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory.
Boltzmann's original papers on the statistical interpretation of thermodynamics occupy about 2,000 pages in the proceedings of the Vienna Academy and other societies. The term "statistical thermodynamics" was proposed for use by the American thermodynamicist Willard Gibbs in 1902. According to Gibbs, the term "statistical", in the context of mechanics, i.e. statistical mechanics, was first used by the Scottish
Classical thermodynamics vs. statistical thermodynamics
As an example, from a classical thermodynamics point of view we might ask what is it about a thermodynamic system of gas molecules, such as ammonia NH3, that determines the free energy characteristic of that compound? Classical thermodynamics does not provide the answer. If, for example, we were given spectroscopic data, of this body of gas molecules, such as bond length, bond angle, bond rotation, and flexibility of the bonds in NH3 we should see that the free energy could not be other than it is. To prove this true, we need to bridge the gap between the microscopic realm of atoms and molecules and the macroscopic realm of classical thermodynamics. From physics, statistical mechanics provides such a bridge by teaching us how to conceive of a thermodynamic system as an assembly of units. More specifically, it demonstrates how the thermodynamic parameters of a system, such as temperature and pressure, are interpretable in terms of the parameters descriptive of such constituent atoms and molecules.
In a bounded system, the crucial characteristic of these microscopic units is that their energies are quantized. That is, where the energies accessible to a macroscopic system form a virtual continuum of possibilities, the energies open to any of its submicroscopic components are limited to a discontinuous set of alternatives associated with integral values of some quantum number.
Chemical Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, chemical thermodynamics is the mathematical study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics can be generally thought of as the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and is concerned with the spontaneity of processes.
The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics. Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the "fundamental equations of Gibbs" can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics.
The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is the establishment of a criterion for the determination of the feasibility or spontaneity of a given transformation. In this manner, chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes:
Chemical reactions
Phase changes
The formation of solutions
The following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics:
Internal energy (U)
Enthalpy (H).
Entropy (S)
Gibbs free energy (G)
Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions.
In thermodynamics, statistical thermodynamics is the study of the microscopic behaviors of thermodynamic systems using probability theory. Statistical thermodynamics, generally, provides a molecular level interpretation of thermodynamic quantities such as work, heat, free energy, and entropy. Statistical thermodynamics was born in 1870 with the work of Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, much of which was collectively published in Boltzmann's 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory.
Boltzmann's original papers on the statistical interpretation of thermodynamics occupy about 2,000 pages in the proceedings of the Vienna Academy and other societies. The term "statistical thermodynamics" was proposed for use by the American thermodynamicist Willard Gibbs in 1902. According to Gibbs, the term "statistical", in the context of mechanics, i.e. statistical mechanics, was first used by the Scottish
Classical thermodynamics vs. statistical thermodynamics
As an example, from a classical thermodynamics point of view we might ask what is it about a thermodynamic system of gas molecules, such as ammonia NH3, that determines the free energy characteristic of that compound? Classical thermodynamics does not provide the answer. If, for example, we were given spectroscopic data, of this body of gas molecules, such as bond length, bond angle, bond rotation, and flexibility of the bonds in NH3 we should see that the free energy could not be other than it is. To prove this true, we need to bridge the gap between the microscopic realm of atoms and molecules and the macroscopic realm of classical thermodynamics. From physics, statistical mechanics provides such a bridge by teaching us how to conceive of a thermodynamic system as an assembly of units. More specifically, it demonstrates how the thermodynamic parameters of a system, such as temperature and pressure, are interpretable in terms of the parameters descriptive of such constituent atoms and molecules.
In a bounded system, the crucial characteristic of these microscopic units is that their energies are quantized. That is, where the energies accessible to a macroscopic system form a virtual continuum of possibilities, the energies open to any of its submicroscopic components are limited to a discontinuous set of alternatives associated with integral values of some quantum number.
Chemical Thermodynamics
In thermodynamics, chemical thermodynamics is the mathematical study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics can be generally thought of as the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and is concerned with the spontaneity of processes.
The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics. Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the "fundamental equations of Gibbs" can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics.
The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is the establishment of a criterion for the determination of the feasibility or spontaneity of a given transformation. In this manner, chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes:
Chemical reactions
Phase changes
The formation of solutions
The following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics:
Internal energy (U)
Enthalpy (H).
Entropy (S)
Gibbs free energy (G)
Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions.
Wednesday, August 06, 2008
Thermodynamics---Lesson 3
Thermodynamic Potentials
A thermodynamic potential is a scalar potential function used to represent the thermodynamic state of a system. One main thermodynamic potential which has a physical interpretation is the internal energy, U. It is the energy of configuration of a given system of conservative forces (that is why it is a potential) and only has meaning with respect to a defined set of references (or datums). In thermodynamics, certain forces, such as gravity, are typically disregarded when formulating expressions for potentials. For example, while all the working fluid in a steam engine may have higher energy due to gravity while sitting on top of Mt. Everest than it would at the bottom of a the gravitational potential energy term in the formula for the internal energy would usually be ignored because changes in gravitational potential within the engine during operation would be negligible. Four common thermodynamic energy potentials are: Internal Energy, Entropy, Enthalpy, Gibbs Free Energy.
Internal Energy
Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular scale. For example, a room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no apparent energy, either potential or kinetic . But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of high speed molecules traveling at hundreds of meters per second. If the water were tossed across the room, this microscopic energy would not necessarily be changed when we superimpose an ordered large scale motion on the water as a whole.
Entropy
In thermodynamics entropy is a measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work. It is a measure of the randomness of molecules in a system and is central to the second law of thermodynamics and the fundamental thermodynamic relation, which deal with physical processes and whether they occur spontaneously. Spontaneous changes, in isolated systems, occur with an increase in entropy. Spontaneous changes tend to smooth out differences in temperature, pressure, density, and chemical potential that may exist in a system, and entropy is thus a measure of how far this smoothing-out process has progressed.
When a system's energy is defined as the sum of its "useful" energy, (e.g. that used to push a piston), and its "useless energy", i.e. that energy which cannot be used for external work, then entropy may be (most concretely) visualized as the "scrap" or "useless" energy whose energetic prevalence over the total energy of a system is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the considered system. Entropy is a function of a quantity of heat which shows the possibility of conversion of that heat into work. The increase in entropy is small when heat is added at high temperature and is greater when heat is added at lower temperature. Thus for maximum entropy there is minimum availability for conversion into work and for minimum entropy there is maximum availability for conversion into work. Entropy is one of the factors that determines the free energy of the system. This thermodynamic definition of entropy is only valid for a system in equilibrium (because temperature is defined only for a system in equilibrium), while the statistical definition of entropy (see below) applies to any system. Thus the statistical definition is usually considered the fundamental definition of entropy.
Entropy increase has often been defined as a change to a more disordered state at a molecular level. In recent years, entropy has been interpreted in terms of the "dispersal" of energy. Entropy is an extensive state function that accounts for the effects of irreversibility in thermodynamic systems. In terms of statistical mechanics, the entropy describes the number of the possible microscopic configurations of the system. The statistical definition of entropy is the more fundamental definition, from which all other definitions and all properties of entropy follow.
Enthalpy
In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy or heat content (denoted as H, h, or rarely as χ) is a quotient or description of thermodynamic potential of a system, which can be used to calculate the "useful" work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system under constant pressure and entropy.
In terms of thermodynamics, enthalpy can be calculated by determining the requirements for creating a system from "nothingness"; the mechanical work required, pV differs, based upon the constancy of conditions present at the creation of the thermodynamic system.
Internal energy, U, must be supplied to remove particles from a surrounding in order to allow space for the creation of a system, providing that environmental variables, such as pressure (p) remain constant. This internal energy also includes the energy required for activation and the breaking of bonded compounds into gases.
This process is calculated as U + pV, to label the amount of energy or work required to "set aside space for" and "create" the system; describing the work done by both the reaction or formation of systems, and the surroundings. For systems at constant pressure, the change in enthalpy is the heat received by the system plus the non-mechanical work that has been done.
Therefore, the change in enthalpy can be devised or represented without the need for compressive or expansive mechanics; for a simple system, with a constant number of particles, the difference in enthalpy is the maximum amount of thermal energy derivable from a thermodynamic process in which the pressure is held constant.
The term pV is the work required to displace the surrounding atmosphere in order to vacate the space to be occupied by the system.
Gibbs Free Energy
In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic potential which measures the "useful" or process-initiating work obtainable from an isothermal, isobaric thermodynamic system. Technically, the Gibbs free energy is the maximum amount of non-expansion work which can be extracted from a closed system or this maximum can be attained only in a completely reversible process. When a system changes from a well-defined initial state to a well-defined final state, the Gibbs free energy ΔG equals the work exchanged by the system with its surroundings, less the work of the pressure forces, during a reversible transformation of the system from the same initial state to the same final state.
The Gibbs free energy, originally called available energy, was developed in the 1870s by the American mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs. In 1873, in a footnote, Gibbs defined what he called the “available energy” of a body as such:
"The greatest amount of mechanical work which can be obtained from a given quantity of a certain substance in a given initial state, without increasing its total volume or allowing heat to pass to or from external bodies, except such as at the close of the processes are left in their initial condition."
The initial state of the body, according to Gibbs, is supposed to be such that "the body can be made to pass from it to states of dissipated energy by reversible processes". In his 1876 magnum opus On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a graphical analysis of multi-phase chemical systems, he engaged his thoughts on chemical free energy in full.
In a simple manner, with respect to STP reacting systems, a general rule of thumb is:
"Every system seeks to achieve a minimum of free energy."
Hence, out of this general natural tendency, a quantitative measure as to how near or far a potential reaction is from this minimum is when the calculated energetics of the process indicate that the change in Gibbs free energy ΔG is negative. Essentially, this means that such a reaction will be favored and will release energy. The energy released equals the maximum amount of work that can be performed as a result of the chemical reaction. Conversely, if conditions indicated a positive ΔG, then energy--in the form of work--would have to be added to the reacting system to make the reaction go.
A thermodynamic potential is a scalar potential function used to represent the thermodynamic state of a system. One main thermodynamic potential which has a physical interpretation is the internal energy, U. It is the energy of configuration of a given system of conservative forces (that is why it is a potential) and only has meaning with respect to a defined set of references (or datums). In thermodynamics, certain forces, such as gravity, are typically disregarded when formulating expressions for potentials. For example, while all the working fluid in a steam engine may have higher energy due to gravity while sitting on top of Mt. Everest than it would at the bottom of a the gravitational potential energy term in the formula for the internal energy would usually be ignored because changes in gravitational potential within the engine during operation would be negligible. Four common thermodynamic energy potentials are: Internal Energy, Entropy, Enthalpy, Gibbs Free Energy.
Internal Energy
Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular scale. For example, a room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no apparent energy, either potential or kinetic . But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of high speed molecules traveling at hundreds of meters per second. If the water were tossed across the room, this microscopic energy would not necessarily be changed when we superimpose an ordered large scale motion on the water as a whole.
Entropy
In thermodynamics entropy is a measure of the unavailability of a system’s energy to do work. It is a measure of the randomness of molecules in a system and is central to the second law of thermodynamics and the fundamental thermodynamic relation, which deal with physical processes and whether they occur spontaneously. Spontaneous changes, in isolated systems, occur with an increase in entropy. Spontaneous changes tend to smooth out differences in temperature, pressure, density, and chemical potential that may exist in a system, and entropy is thus a measure of how far this smoothing-out process has progressed.
When a system's energy is defined as the sum of its "useful" energy, (e.g. that used to push a piston), and its "useless energy", i.e. that energy which cannot be used for external work, then entropy may be (most concretely) visualized as the "scrap" or "useless" energy whose energetic prevalence over the total energy of a system is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the considered system. Entropy is a function of a quantity of heat which shows the possibility of conversion of that heat into work. The increase in entropy is small when heat is added at high temperature and is greater when heat is added at lower temperature. Thus for maximum entropy there is minimum availability for conversion into work and for minimum entropy there is maximum availability for conversion into work. Entropy is one of the factors that determines the free energy of the system. This thermodynamic definition of entropy is only valid for a system in equilibrium (because temperature is defined only for a system in equilibrium), while the statistical definition of entropy (see below) applies to any system. Thus the statistical definition is usually considered the fundamental definition of entropy.
Entropy increase has often been defined as a change to a more disordered state at a molecular level. In recent years, entropy has been interpreted in terms of the "dispersal" of energy. Entropy is an extensive state function that accounts for the effects of irreversibility in thermodynamic systems. In terms of statistical mechanics, the entropy describes the number of the possible microscopic configurations of the system. The statistical definition of entropy is the more fundamental definition, from which all other definitions and all properties of entropy follow.
Enthalpy
In thermodynamics and molecular chemistry, the enthalpy or heat content (denoted as H, h, or rarely as χ) is a quotient or description of thermodynamic potential of a system, which can be used to calculate the "useful" work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system under constant pressure and entropy.
In terms of thermodynamics, enthalpy can be calculated by determining the requirements for creating a system from "nothingness"; the mechanical work required, pV differs, based upon the constancy of conditions present at the creation of the thermodynamic system.
Internal energy, U, must be supplied to remove particles from a surrounding in order to allow space for the creation of a system, providing that environmental variables, such as pressure (p) remain constant. This internal energy also includes the energy required for activation and the breaking of bonded compounds into gases.
This process is calculated as U + pV, to label the amount of energy or work required to "set aside space for" and "create" the system; describing the work done by both the reaction or formation of systems, and the surroundings. For systems at constant pressure, the change in enthalpy is the heat received by the system plus the non-mechanical work that has been done.
Therefore, the change in enthalpy can be devised or represented without the need for compressive or expansive mechanics; for a simple system, with a constant number of particles, the difference in enthalpy is the maximum amount of thermal energy derivable from a thermodynamic process in which the pressure is held constant.
The term pV is the work required to displace the surrounding atmosphere in order to vacate the space to be occupied by the system.
Gibbs Free Energy
In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic potential which measures the "useful" or process-initiating work obtainable from an isothermal, isobaric thermodynamic system. Technically, the Gibbs free energy is the maximum amount of non-expansion work which can be extracted from a closed system or this maximum can be attained only in a completely reversible process. When a system changes from a well-defined initial state to a well-defined final state, the Gibbs free energy ΔG equals the work exchanged by the system with its surroundings, less the work of the pressure forces, during a reversible transformation of the system from the same initial state to the same final state.
The Gibbs free energy, originally called available energy, was developed in the 1870s by the American mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs. In 1873, in a footnote, Gibbs defined what he called the “available energy” of a body as such:
"The greatest amount of mechanical work which can be obtained from a given quantity of a certain substance in a given initial state, without increasing its total volume or allowing heat to pass to or from external bodies, except such as at the close of the processes are left in their initial condition."
The initial state of the body, according to Gibbs, is supposed to be such that "the body can be made to pass from it to states of dissipated energy by reversible processes". In his 1876 magnum opus On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a graphical analysis of multi-phase chemical systems, he engaged his thoughts on chemical free energy in full.
In a simple manner, with respect to STP reacting systems, a general rule of thumb is:
"Every system seeks to achieve a minimum of free energy."
Hence, out of this general natural tendency, a quantitative measure as to how near or far a potential reaction is from this minimum is when the calculated energetics of the process indicate that the change in Gibbs free energy ΔG is negative. Essentially, this means that such a reaction will be favored and will release energy. The energy released equals the maximum amount of work that can be performed as a result of the chemical reaction. Conversely, if conditions indicated a positive ΔG, then energy--in the form of work--would have to be added to the reacting system to make the reaction go.
Thermodynamics---Lesson 2
Laws of Thermodynamics
If two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
When two systems are put in contact with each other, there will be a net exchange of energy between them unless or until they are in thermal equilibrium, that is, they contain the same amount of thermal energy for a given volume (say, 1 cubic centimeter, or 1 cubic inch.) While this is a fundamental concept of thermodynamics, the need to state it explicitly as a law was not perceived until the first third of the 20th century, long after the first three laws were already widely in use, hence the zero numbering. The Zeroth Law asserts that thermal equilibrium, viewed as a binary relation, is an equivalence relation.
First law of thermodynamics
In any process, the total energy of the universe remains the same.
It can also be defined as:
for a thermodynamic cycle the sum of net heat supplied to the system and the net work done by the system is equal to zero.
More simply, the First Law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed; rather, the amount of energy lost in a steady state process cannot be greater than the amount of energy gained.
This is the statement of conservation of energy for a thermodynamic system. It refers to the two ways that a closed system transfers energy to and from its surroundings - by the process of heating (or cooling) and the process of mechanical work. The rate of gain or loss in the stored energy of a system is determined by the rates of these two processes. In open systems, the flow of matter is another energy transfer mechanism, and extra terms must be included in the expression of the first law.
The First Law clarifies the nature of energy. It is a stored quantity which is independent of any particular process path, i.e., it is independent of the system history. If a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, whether it becomes warmer, cooler, larger, or smaller, then it will have the same amount of energy each time it returns to a particular state. Mathematically speaking, energy is a state function and infinitesimal changes in the energy are exact differentials.
Second law of thermodynamics
The entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at equilibrium.
In a simple manner, the second law states that "energy systems have a tendency to increase their entropy" rather than decrease it.
A way of looking at the second law for non-scientists is to look at entropy as a measure of chaos. So, for example, a broken cup has less order and more chaos than an intact one. Likewise, solid crystals, the most organized form of matter, have very low entropy values; and gases, which are highly disorganized, have high entropy values. The entropy of a thermally isolated macroscopic system never decreases. However, a microscopic system may exhibit fluctuations of entropy opposite to that dictated by the Second Law. In a logical sense the Second Law thus ceases to be a "Law" of physics and instead becomes a theorem which is valid for large systems or long times.
Third law of thermodynamics
As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a constant minimum.
In brief, this postulates that entropy is temperature dependent and leads to the formulation of the idea of absolute zero.
Stop This Biofuel Nonsense !!!!! ---summary/excerpt
In the Amazon, there is a land rush, accelerated by the most unlikely source – biofuels. An explosion of demand for farm-grown fuels has raised global food prices to a record high.
Propelled by mounting environmental concerns, biofuels has become the trendy way for politicians and corporations to show that they are serious about finding alternative sources of energy and in the process slow global warming.
Biofuels has done the opposite.
By diverting grain and oilseed crops from dinner plates to fuel tanks, biofuels are jacking up the world’s food prices, and endangering the hungry. The grain it takes to fill up the tank of 1 SUV can be used to feed a person for 365 days. Harvest are being plucked to feed our cars instead of our stomachs, and the U.N. declared it was a global emergency. Soaring corn prices has sparked tortilla riots in Mexico, flour prices have destabilized Pakistan, which was not exactly tranquil when flour was affordable.
Researchers have ignored the amazingly simple problem with biofuels, that using land to grow fuels lead to the destruction of forests, wetland, and grasslands that store enormous amounts of carbon. U.S. farmers are selling one-fifth of their corn to ethanol production, so U.S. soybean farmers are switching to corn, so Brazilian soybean farmers are expanding into cattle pastures, so Brazilian cattlemen are dispatched to the Amazon, where they clear new grazing lands in the Amazon rainforest or the Cerrado savanna, releasing vast amounts of carbon. In fact, only sugarcane based ethanol is efficient enough to cut emissions by more than it takes to produce the fuel, the rest of the ‘green’ fuels are net carbon emitters. U.S. leads the world in corn and soybean production, but even if 100% of its crop are turned into fuel, it would be only enough to offset just 20% of on-road fuel consumption.
The price of soybeans goes up, an the forests go down.
Propelled by mounting environmental concerns, biofuels has become the trendy way for politicians and corporations to show that they are serious about finding alternative sources of energy and in the process slow global warming.
Biofuels has done the opposite.
By diverting grain and oilseed crops from dinner plates to fuel tanks, biofuels are jacking up the world’s food prices, and endangering the hungry. The grain it takes to fill up the tank of 1 SUV can be used to feed a person for 365 days. Harvest are being plucked to feed our cars instead of our stomachs, and the U.N. declared it was a global emergency. Soaring corn prices has sparked tortilla riots in Mexico, flour prices have destabilized Pakistan, which was not exactly tranquil when flour was affordable.
Researchers have ignored the amazingly simple problem with biofuels, that using land to grow fuels lead to the destruction of forests, wetland, and grasslands that store enormous amounts of carbon. U.S. farmers are selling one-fifth of their corn to ethanol production, so U.S. soybean farmers are switching to corn, so Brazilian soybean farmers are expanding into cattle pastures, so Brazilian cattlemen are dispatched to the Amazon, where they clear new grazing lands in the Amazon rainforest or the Cerrado savanna, releasing vast amounts of carbon. In fact, only sugarcane based ethanol is efficient enough to cut emissions by more than it takes to produce the fuel, the rest of the ‘green’ fuels are net carbon emitters. U.S. leads the world in corn and soybean production, but even if 100% of its crop are turned into fuel, it would be only enough to offset just 20% of on-road fuel consumption.
The price of soybeans goes up, an the forests go down.
Tuesday, August 05, 2008
Thermodynamics
I will post a series of 9 lessons on thermodynamics. as follows:
Lesson 1: Heat and Temperature
Lesson 2: Laws of Thermodynamics
Lesson 3: Thermodynamic Potentials (Entropy, Enthalpy, Internal Energy, Gibbs Free Energy)
Lesson 4: Statistical Thermodynamics and Chemical Thermodynamics
Lesson 5: Thermodynamic Processes
Lesson 6: Thermodynamic Expansion
Lesson 7: Phase Changes
Lesson 8: Statistical Mechanics
Lesson 9: Kinetic Theory
Lesson 1: Heat and Temperature
Lesson 2: Laws of Thermodynamics
Lesson 3: Thermodynamic Potentials (Entropy, Enthalpy, Internal Energy, Gibbs Free Energy)
Lesson 4: Statistical Thermodynamics and Chemical Thermodynamics
Lesson 5: Thermodynamic Processes
Lesson 6: Thermodynamic Expansion
Lesson 7: Phase Changes
Lesson 8: Statistical Mechanics
Lesson 9: Kinetic Theory
Physics-Thermodynamics, Lesson 1
Heat
Heat may be defined as energy in transit from a high temperature object to a lower temperature object. An object does not possess "heat"; the appropriate term for the microscopic energy in an object is internal energy. The internal energy may be increased by transferring energy to the object from a higher temperature (hotter) object - this is properly called heating.
Temperature
A convenient operational definition of temperature is that it is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy associated with the disordered microscopic motion of atoms and molecules. The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower temperature region. The details of the relationship to molecular motion are described in kinetic theory. The temperature defined from kinetic theory is called the kinetic temperature. Temperature is not directly proportional to internal energy since temperature measures only the kinetic energy part of the internal energy, so two objects with the same temperature do not in general have the same internal energy (see water-metal example). Temperatures are measured in one of the three standard temperature scales (Celsius, Kelvin, and Fahrenheit).
The triple point of water is 273.16 K, and that is an international standard temperature point. The freezing point of water at one atmosphere pressure, 0.00°C, is 0.01K below that at 273.15 K. If you want to be really precise about it, the boiling point is 373.125 K, or 99.75 °C. But for general purposes, just 0 °C and 100 °C are precise enough.
While the typical treatment of temperature scales takes the freezing point of water to be 0C and the boiling point at standard pressure to be 100C, there are more precise treatments of standard points for defining temperatures. one standard point is the triple point of water which has been defined to be 273.16K. The freezing point of water at atmospheric pressure is .01K below this at 273.15K.
While the typical treatment of temperature scales takes the freezing point of water to be 0C and the boiling point at standard pressure to be 100C, there are more precise treatments of standard points for defining temperatures. one standard point is the triple point of water which has been defined to be 273.16K. The freezing point of water at atmospheric pressure is .01K below this at 273.15K.
That will be all now, the next lesson will be on the laws of thermodynamics
Was the economic impact of the Protestant-Catholic conflict more damaging to Northern Ireland than the political impact?
The Protestant-Catholic conflict often led to strikes and riots that disrupted production.
The constant violence in Northern Ireland drove away foreign investors who were worried about the security and profitability of their investments
Furthermore, tourists stayed away from Northern Ireland because they feared the terrorist attacks conducted by the IRA.
As a result, the economy became stagnant. A pull out of foreign companies led to massive unemployment. People who lost their jobs cut down on spending and this also led to the decline of local businesses. Without the tourist dollar, many companies suffered. Since the economic impact affected both Catholics and Protestants equally, it’s impact on Northern Ireland can be considered to be very damaging.
The conflict has had a more positive impact on Northern Ireland’s politics compared to its economy.
The Protestant-Catholic violence drew attention to the many unequal government policies and led to sweeping reforms.
For example, after 2 civil rights marches in 1968, the government decided to abolish the unfair voting system that only allowed property or business owners to vote, unfairly preventing many poorer Catholics from voting. The catastrophe of Bloody Sunday also led to a power sharing agreement between the Protestants and Catholics.
From this we can see that the political impact was largely positive and not damaging
Because of the tension and danger of conflict erupting, Protestants and Catholics lived separately
They went to different schools, churches and workplaces in order to minimize contact.
One example was the Belfast Peace Wall built in 1969. The aim of the wall was to separate Protestants and Catholics to keep them segregated and avoid conflict.
However, this had a mixed impact because while it did probably reduce the number of riots that occurred, it also kept the mutual suspicion between the Protestants and Catholics in place, since they had no opportunity to interact with each other. On the whole, the social impact of the conflict kept the rift between the two groups and therefore helped to continue its own existence.
Conclusion:
The political and economic impacts of the conflict were both very great since they affected the rights and livelihoods of both Protestants and Catholics. However, while they are equal in impact, the political impact of the conflict was mostly positive because it led to more equal rights, whereas the economic impact was negative because it resulted in massive unemployment. The social impact was not so great since the distrust between the Protestants and Catholics had already existed for hundreds of years. Therefore, it is true to say the economic and social impacts were more damaging than the political one.
The constant violence in Northern Ireland drove away foreign investors who were worried about the security and profitability of their investments
Furthermore, tourists stayed away from Northern Ireland because they feared the terrorist attacks conducted by the IRA.
As a result, the economy became stagnant. A pull out of foreign companies led to massive unemployment. People who lost their jobs cut down on spending and this also led to the decline of local businesses. Without the tourist dollar, many companies suffered. Since the economic impact affected both Catholics and Protestants equally, it’s impact on Northern Ireland can be considered to be very damaging.
The conflict has had a more positive impact on Northern Ireland’s politics compared to its economy.
The Protestant-Catholic violence drew attention to the many unequal government policies and led to sweeping reforms.
For example, after 2 civil rights marches in 1968, the government decided to abolish the unfair voting system that only allowed property or business owners to vote, unfairly preventing many poorer Catholics from voting. The catastrophe of Bloody Sunday also led to a power sharing agreement between the Protestants and Catholics.
From this we can see that the political impact was largely positive and not damaging
Because of the tension and danger of conflict erupting, Protestants and Catholics lived separately
They went to different schools, churches and workplaces in order to minimize contact.
One example was the Belfast Peace Wall built in 1969. The aim of the wall was to separate Protestants and Catholics to keep them segregated and avoid conflict.
However, this had a mixed impact because while it did probably reduce the number of riots that occurred, it also kept the mutual suspicion between the Protestants and Catholics in place, since they had no opportunity to interact with each other. On the whole, the social impact of the conflict kept the rift between the two groups and therefore helped to continue its own existence.
Conclusion:
The political and economic impacts of the conflict were both very great since they affected the rights and livelihoods of both Protestants and Catholics. However, while they are equal in impact, the political impact of the conflict was mostly positive because it led to more equal rights, whereas the economic impact was negative because it resulted in massive unemployment. The social impact was not so great since the distrust between the Protestants and Catholics had already existed for hundreds of years. Therefore, it is true to say the economic and social impacts were more damaging than the political one.
How far were the citizenship rights a cause of conflict between the Sinhalese and Tamils in Sri Lanka?
Since Sri Lanka became independent, there was an unequal criteria for citizenship rights in Sri Lanka. A citizen’s father and grandfather had to be born in Sri Lanka, meaning that many Indian Tamils were denied basic rights like voting although they had worked in the country for a long time. Although Sri Lanka negotiated with India to allow Indian Tamils to return to India, while giving the rest Sri Lankan citizenship in 1964, it did not hold up its end of the bargain, and 100,000 Tamils remain stateless.
This led to anger among the Tamils because they felt that their contributions to Sri Lanka had been ignored. Furthermore, they felt Sri Lanka had betrayed them by not fulfilling the 1964 agreement. Given that these policies were dictated by the Sinhalese, Tamil anger was inevitably directed at them, contributing to the Sri Lankan conflict.
However, there are other factors that contributed to the conflict. Before independence, unequal job opportunities already contributed to conflict. English-educated Tamils were given preference over the Sinhalese in the British civil service. This led the Sinhalese to resent the Tamils.
After independence, the situation was reversed when Sinhala was made the official language of government. Tamils who did not learn the language were dismissed. This caused the Tamils to blame the Sinhalese for their unfairness and the loss of jobs, leading to greater anger and worsening the conflict.
However, this factor is not as significant as citizenship rights in causing conflict. This is because the language policy was altered to accommodate Tamil majority areas.
For example, the 1978 Sri Lankan Constitution recognized Tamil as an official language and allowed it to be used to run the administration in the Tamil majority northern and eastern provinces.
Hence, since 1978, Tamils had less cause for resentment in this area, as they could work in the civil service. This lessens the potential for conflict because they did not lose out to the Sinhalese in Tamil majority provinces.
Equal opportunities were actually present before independence; university admissions were based on merit. However, the Sinhalese still resented the disproportionate number of Tamils entering university.
After independence, the Sinhalese government changed education policies that made it harder for Tamils and easier for the Sinhalese to enter university.
For example, Tamil students had to obtain higher admissions scores compared to the Sinhalese in order to get into the same course. Furthermore, quotas were set on the number of Tamils who could be admitted to any course. This led to a drop in the number of Tamils getting a tertiary education.
As a result, the Tamils felt that they were being victimized since they were deprived of higher education. They saw it as a deliberate attempt by the government to keep them in low-skilled, low-paying jobs. Hence, Tamil resentment was once again directed at the Sinhalese and worsened the conflict.
To a large extent, unequal citizenship rights contributed to the Sri Lankan conflict, since it enshrined unequal treatment of the Tamils under the law. However, this is not to the exclusion of unfair education policies that made the Tamils feel victimized by the Sinhalese. Unequal job opportunities, while also leading to the conflict, was not such a major factor since the unequal policy has been changed to allow Tamil to be an official language of administration. Therefore, Tamils had less cause for resentment in this area. This means that unequal citizenship rights and education policy contributed to the conflict to a larger extent.
This led to anger among the Tamils because they felt that their contributions to Sri Lanka had been ignored. Furthermore, they felt Sri Lanka had betrayed them by not fulfilling the 1964 agreement. Given that these policies were dictated by the Sinhalese, Tamil anger was inevitably directed at them, contributing to the Sri Lankan conflict.
However, there are other factors that contributed to the conflict. Before independence, unequal job opportunities already contributed to conflict. English-educated Tamils were given preference over the Sinhalese in the British civil service. This led the Sinhalese to resent the Tamils.
After independence, the situation was reversed when Sinhala was made the official language of government. Tamils who did not learn the language were dismissed. This caused the Tamils to blame the Sinhalese for their unfairness and the loss of jobs, leading to greater anger and worsening the conflict.
However, this factor is not as significant as citizenship rights in causing conflict. This is because the language policy was altered to accommodate Tamil majority areas.
For example, the 1978 Sri Lankan Constitution recognized Tamil as an official language and allowed it to be used to run the administration in the Tamil majority northern and eastern provinces.
Hence, since 1978, Tamils had less cause for resentment in this area, as they could work in the civil service. This lessens the potential for conflict because they did not lose out to the Sinhalese in Tamil majority provinces.
Equal opportunities were actually present before independence; university admissions were based on merit. However, the Sinhalese still resented the disproportionate number of Tamils entering university.
After independence, the Sinhalese government changed education policies that made it harder for Tamils and easier for the Sinhalese to enter university.
For example, Tamil students had to obtain higher admissions scores compared to the Sinhalese in order to get into the same course. Furthermore, quotas were set on the number of Tamils who could be admitted to any course. This led to a drop in the number of Tamils getting a tertiary education.
As a result, the Tamils felt that they were being victimized since they were deprived of higher education. They saw it as a deliberate attempt by the government to keep them in low-skilled, low-paying jobs. Hence, Tamil resentment was once again directed at the Sinhalese and worsened the conflict.
To a large extent, unequal citizenship rights contributed to the Sri Lankan conflict, since it enshrined unequal treatment of the Tamils under the law. However, this is not to the exclusion of unfair education policies that made the Tamils feel victimized by the Sinhalese. Unequal job opportunities, while also leading to the conflict, was not such a major factor since the unequal policy has been changed to allow Tamil to be an official language of administration. Therefore, Tamils had less cause for resentment in this area. This means that unequal citizenship rights and education policy contributed to the conflict to a larger extent.
Sunday, July 20, 2008
What is the effect of poverty on self esteem development in the young?
What does poverty mean for children? How does the relative lack of income influence children’s day-to-day lives? Is it through inadequate nutrition; fewer learning experiences; instability of residence; lower quality of schools; exposure to environmental toxins, family violence, and homelessness; dangerous streets; or less access to friends, services, and, for adolescents, jobs?
Poor children suffer higher incidences of adverse health, developmental, and other outcomes than other children. The impact on the well-being of children and youths considered in some detail in this article include physical health (low birth weight, growth stunting, and lead poisoning), cognitive ability (intelligence, verbal ability, and achievement test scores), school achievement (years of schooling, high school completion), emotional and behavioral outcomes, and teenage out-of-wedlock childbearing. Children living below the poverty threshold are more likely as well-to-do children to experience learning disabilities and developmental delays. Children who live in poverty are often influenced by family stresses that others do not have. It should not be their problem to worry about where money is coming from for their next school trip or groceries next week and yet they do. This can humiliate them further if they are centered out or made to feel different when they cannot present the proper funds for things like school activities.
Other factors related to poverty that affect children’s self-esteem: The stigma attached to people living in poverty would not seem to influence children but it does. Class division distinctions begin young and some are taught to create schisms where there might not have been any. While the support of friends is beneficial to children, the humiliation of peers pointing out what they are lacking can be devastating. Most children want to blend in with others but in some circumstances, they involuntarily stand out.
In recent years, there has been a huge push by the media to obtain expensive brand name clothing. Children are influenced as well and many notice what others are wearing and want to imitate that. If someone has outgrown their clothes or is not wearing the latest “in” thing they can become a target and stigmatized. Access to other activities can be a problem as well which can contribute further to a child’s negative emotional state. The effects of a child’s poor self-esteem can influence the quality of their education as well. If they are not feeling confident in their own abilities, it then can influence the outcome of their schoolwork and possibly their future employment prospects. One can see how a cycle of poverty and low self-esteem might be hard to break. While parents praising children for their successes are important, laying it on too thick can actually backfire according to a recent study. Apparently, when expectations are too high children become pressured and are so afraid to make mistakes that they then may avoid things that look challenging. Criticizing children too much can also be damaging to self-esteem so there is a balance to be found between the two.
Sometimes one teacher, aunt or friend can influence a child enough to make a difference and if everyone kept that in mind and treated each other with respect and dignity, it could help avoid negative outcomes for children’s futures financially and emotionally.
Poor children suffer higher incidences of adverse health, developmental, and other outcomes than other children. The impact on the well-being of children and youths considered in some detail in this article include physical health (low birth weight, growth stunting, and lead poisoning), cognitive ability (intelligence, verbal ability, and achievement test scores), school achievement (years of schooling, high school completion), emotional and behavioral outcomes, and teenage out-of-wedlock childbearing. Children living below the poverty threshold are more likely as well-to-do children to experience learning disabilities and developmental delays. Children who live in poverty are often influenced by family stresses that others do not have. It should not be their problem to worry about where money is coming from for their next school trip or groceries next week and yet they do. This can humiliate them further if they are centered out or made to feel different when they cannot present the proper funds for things like school activities.
Other factors related to poverty that affect children’s self-esteem: The stigma attached to people living in poverty would not seem to influence children but it does. Class division distinctions begin young and some are taught to create schisms where there might not have been any. While the support of friends is beneficial to children, the humiliation of peers pointing out what they are lacking can be devastating. Most children want to blend in with others but in some circumstances, they involuntarily stand out.
In recent years, there has been a huge push by the media to obtain expensive brand name clothing. Children are influenced as well and many notice what others are wearing and want to imitate that. If someone has outgrown their clothes or is not wearing the latest “in” thing they can become a target and stigmatized. Access to other activities can be a problem as well which can contribute further to a child’s negative emotional state. The effects of a child’s poor self-esteem can influence the quality of their education as well. If they are not feeling confident in their own abilities, it then can influence the outcome of their schoolwork and possibly their future employment prospects. One can see how a cycle of poverty and low self-esteem might be hard to break. While parents praising children for their successes are important, laying it on too thick can actually backfire according to a recent study. Apparently, when expectations are too high children become pressured and are so afraid to make mistakes that they then may avoid things that look challenging. Criticizing children too much can also be damaging to self-esteem so there is a balance to be found between the two.
Sometimes one teacher, aunt or friend can influence a child enough to make a difference and if everyone kept that in mind and treated each other with respect and dignity, it could help avoid negative outcomes for children’s futures financially and emotionally.
Book Review 'Lord of the Flies'
In the beginning of the novel, Ralph is introduced first as a normal schoolboy. He quickly meets Piggy (nickname!), a nerd/dork/fatso, and becomes fast friends. Piggy looks onto Ralph for leadership and Ralph assumes the role of the leader with ease. Ralph cares about Piggy and is able to make sensible decisions on what they need and where they should go to. He feels that he should find the rest of the survivors and be civilized “like an Englishman”. He uses the conch shell as a symbol of authority and calls the rest of the survivors using it as a horn. They sits down in a meeting, to prevent a noisy squabble from happening, Ralph puts down the rule that during a meeting, only the person holding the conch can speak. This is somewhat like our parliament meetings and it can be seen that Ralph is able to command authority and stop disagreements, the fact that everyone listens to him also gives us a hint that he would become a good leader.
Before having the first meeting, Ralph and Piggy meet jack, who is a much older schoolboy than Ralph, exceeding Ralph in physical size and strength. When Ralph and Piggy meets jack, jack was hunting a small pig with a spear and almost injured the two. He did not apologize afterwards and seem to think it was Ralph’s fault that he scared away the pig. He despises Piggy and treats him like a rat. It is apparent that jack used to be a bully, picking on the small and weak. He did not like being asked to do things and provoked Ralph during the meeting, Ralph showed jack that he was not afraid of him and that shook jack pretty well. Readers easily tell that jack would pose a problem to everyone on the island and did not care to have Ralph around. Jack treats the whole island like a playground, with no adults to keep everyone in order, he wants to hunt and kill, and we can see that he is violent and cruel.
Ralph can be compared to our current and past prime ministers, who uphold order and made sensible laws that makes everything go smoothly. Ralph set up foraging groups, construction tasks, and guard duty at night, it was only after jack threatened to leave when Ralph yielded and agreed to have a hunting party as well, which was made up by all of jack’s “men”.
Jack was a different story altogether. He respected neither Ralph’s rules nor anyone on the island. He prefers to use intimidation and fear to rule, like a dictator or a triad boss, likewise training his hunting party to be yakuza. He only hunts and argue with Ralph about the way things is run.
After reading the first chapter, I feel that in a modern society, Ralph will make a good politician and leader as he understands what the people need and how to hand responsibilities out. Jack can be a dictator like Stalin, hated by the people and uses fear to rule all, getting rid of all that stands in his way. On the island, jack definitely stands in a better advantage as he gives much false promises of luxury and coerced the boys into joining him. Ralph has only Piggy as his ally and worries about what they need rather then what they want.
Before having the first meeting, Ralph and Piggy meet jack, who is a much older schoolboy than Ralph, exceeding Ralph in physical size and strength. When Ralph and Piggy meets jack, jack was hunting a small pig with a spear and almost injured the two. He did not apologize afterwards and seem to think it was Ralph’s fault that he scared away the pig. He despises Piggy and treats him like a rat. It is apparent that jack used to be a bully, picking on the small and weak. He did not like being asked to do things and provoked Ralph during the meeting, Ralph showed jack that he was not afraid of him and that shook jack pretty well. Readers easily tell that jack would pose a problem to everyone on the island and did not care to have Ralph around. Jack treats the whole island like a playground, with no adults to keep everyone in order, he wants to hunt and kill, and we can see that he is violent and cruel.
Ralph can be compared to our current and past prime ministers, who uphold order and made sensible laws that makes everything go smoothly. Ralph set up foraging groups, construction tasks, and guard duty at night, it was only after jack threatened to leave when Ralph yielded and agreed to have a hunting party as well, which was made up by all of jack’s “men”.
Jack was a different story altogether. He respected neither Ralph’s rules nor anyone on the island. He prefers to use intimidation and fear to rule, like a dictator or a triad boss, likewise training his hunting party to be yakuza. He only hunts and argue with Ralph about the way things is run.
After reading the first chapter, I feel that in a modern society, Ralph will make a good politician and leader as he understands what the people need and how to hand responsibilities out. Jack can be a dictator like Stalin, hated by the people and uses fear to rule all, getting rid of all that stands in his way. On the island, jack definitely stands in a better advantage as he gives much false promises of luxury and coerced the boys into joining him. Ralph has only Piggy as his ally and worries about what they need rather then what they want.
How does my attitude towards my culture affect my ability to learn Chinese/English?
The most important thing in learning, as reiterated often by the teachers, is to have a positive attitude. The attitude to pass up homework, listen in class, and even coming to school, are important parts of learning. Many students in secondary and tertiary schools treat Chinese like a second subject. Since they only need to get A1 for one language, they rather it would be English, as English is used in most subjects and students feel they are more proficient in it. Although that is true, students should still have an open mind about Chinese. A common phenomena in the school is that Chinese is the most dreaded subject and Chinese teachers’ names are dirt. Students do not pass up homework regularly and easily give it up. To them, Chinese is a very difficult subject that is not used often and being able to speak it is enough.
‘Is fame a new religion? People used to worship gods, now they worship film stars, sports players, and pop singers.
In the past people respected faith, now they respect fame.’
I agree with the statement completely. As a person who prefers classical music to pop, who never watches any kind of sports match, and only know the actors by their role in the film, I do not understand the pervasive power of fame. Fame is achieved by many people through successful careers. A single goal at the last few seconds can catapult a soccer player to heaven, or bring the entire team back to Earth. A single observation I have made over seeing so many paparazzi material is that celebrities have an insatiable desire for more fame. Media darlings like Paris Hilton and Britney Spears are classic examples of how fame corrupts the famous and the masses. Film stars are just actors who are probably nothing their roles when the camera is not rolling. These people are just able to do their jobs better. Why does not, for example, a teacher who finally has a breakthrough with an autistic child have fame as a supreme educator?
Faith is something I believe in. The absolute truth of the world, the mighty Yahweh, the Eightfold Path, enlightenment, pagans, the Qu’ran. These are just words that are associated with the concept of faith and religion. I myself am a free thinker. I would rather believe that the universe, or as recent scientific studies suggest, the multiverse, is ruled by a strict set of physical laws and these laws are unchangeable and always-lasting, than we are ruled by god(s) that are in heaven and hell, ready to smite us at a moments whim. However, the only questions that humans try to answer with all the subjects and learning are: Who are we? Who are you? Why are we here? These three questions ask for our identity and reason for existence. Are we just a midget in the cosmic expanse, an invisible presence in the world, that we just are? Faith gives us the answer to all these questions that for millennia past all have been trying to answer but no two beings agree. We have been born followers, not leaders. Humans would follow an ethereal leader for guidance, for judgment, and rather not, cannot, be an independent existence.
In this new age, with the invention of films, of the glorifying of sports, humans have found a new group of leaders, celebrities. We dress like them, talk like them, act like them, and commit every single thing he or she has ever done to memory. As we gradually find that not all things are as the deities dictate. Other humans that are just slightly more successful than us seem like a more achievable goal. People do not just respect fame; they immortalize those who have that fame. A simple wave by our favorite idol can send us screaming, totally forgetting the few hundred dollars we had to pay in exchange for an admission to be a few thousand rows away from our idol. It seems illogical, insane, but that is what we do. Faith has lost its charm for many as it is no longer expected to provide the answers that we all seek, but also to satisfy our material needs.
God(s), it seems, have become but an all-provider.
I agree with the statement completely. As a person who prefers classical music to pop, who never watches any kind of sports match, and only know the actors by their role in the film, I do not understand the pervasive power of fame. Fame is achieved by many people through successful careers. A single goal at the last few seconds can catapult a soccer player to heaven, or bring the entire team back to Earth. A single observation I have made over seeing so many paparazzi material is that celebrities have an insatiable desire for more fame. Media darlings like Paris Hilton and Britney Spears are classic examples of how fame corrupts the famous and the masses. Film stars are just actors who are probably nothing their roles when the camera is not rolling. These people are just able to do their jobs better. Why does not, for example, a teacher who finally has a breakthrough with an autistic child have fame as a supreme educator?
Faith is something I believe in. The absolute truth of the world, the mighty Yahweh, the Eightfold Path, enlightenment, pagans, the Qu’ran. These are just words that are associated with the concept of faith and religion. I myself am a free thinker. I would rather believe that the universe, or as recent scientific studies suggest, the multiverse, is ruled by a strict set of physical laws and these laws are unchangeable and always-lasting, than we are ruled by god(s) that are in heaven and hell, ready to smite us at a moments whim. However, the only questions that humans try to answer with all the subjects and learning are: Who are we? Who are you? Why are we here? These three questions ask for our identity and reason for existence. Are we just a midget in the cosmic expanse, an invisible presence in the world, that we just are? Faith gives us the answer to all these questions that for millennia past all have been trying to answer but no two beings agree. We have been born followers, not leaders. Humans would follow an ethereal leader for guidance, for judgment, and rather not, cannot, be an independent existence.
In this new age, with the invention of films, of the glorifying of sports, humans have found a new group of leaders, celebrities. We dress like them, talk like them, act like them, and commit every single thing he or she has ever done to memory. As we gradually find that not all things are as the deities dictate. Other humans that are just slightly more successful than us seem like a more achievable goal. People do not just respect fame; they immortalize those who have that fame. A simple wave by our favorite idol can send us screaming, totally forgetting the few hundred dollars we had to pay in exchange for an admission to be a few thousand rows away from our idol. It seems illogical, insane, but that is what we do. Faith has lost its charm for many as it is no longer expected to provide the answers that we all seek, but also to satisfy our material needs.
God(s), it seems, have become but an all-provider.
Some people get distracted easily in class; some cannot stop talking. These people often disrupt lessons.
During lesson time, the most important thing is to learn and gain knowledge from the precious time with the teacher. Despite such, many students talk and discuss among themselves what the teacher has said. As students grow older, they commonly have less respect for the teacher conducting the lesson. A common phenomenon now is that students play games on their mobile phone under the table. A lesson can often be disrupted because of (A)someone falling asleep, (B)someone playing games, (C)someone talking loudly with another, and more recently, (D)students doing their homework from other subjects. A teacher wastes time by scolding the student, handing out a fitting punishment, warning the rest of the class not to make the same mistake, and fuming for a while before continuing the lesson.
Some students also annoy me very much by asking ridiculous questions that have nothing to do with the current topic or arguing with the teacher about something that everyone gets but he just has to tell the teacher that there is a slight mistake which makes no difference whatsoever. I have an urge to rip out their heads (hmm… I probably should not have watched “Saw III” last weekend) as it just waste my time and I have to further put more effort into staying focused.
Those that I have just mentioned are really just pests in the class. I am very frustrated when a lesson is halted for the teacher to address a particular problem as it stops the momentum and the lesson cannot pick up its pace again. Another problem is that some students do not have any disciplinary problems, but they are “zoning” during the lesson, more or less sleeping with their eyes open. When the teacher calls on anyone to solve a problem on the board or read a passage, the person is caught unawares and further wastes time by (A) waking up from their daydream, (B) realize what the teacher is asking, (C)recall what they learned, if they have, (D)and commence hesitantly.
In my opinion, these people should be sent out of the class, to stand at the back of the classroom, serve detention, notifying their parents, setting them extra work, or to confiscate whatever distracting materials they have under their desks, or having any of the combinations. The teacher should not stop the lesson at all and must deal the punishment without any margin for argument or protest. By saying this I have doomed myself to eternal attention at lessons as I cannot bear the humiliation, that is still for the better, I hope.
Some students also annoy me very much by asking ridiculous questions that have nothing to do with the current topic or arguing with the teacher about something that everyone gets but he just has to tell the teacher that there is a slight mistake which makes no difference whatsoever. I have an urge to rip out their heads (hmm… I probably should not have watched “Saw III” last weekend) as it just waste my time and I have to further put more effort into staying focused.
Those that I have just mentioned are really just pests in the class. I am very frustrated when a lesson is halted for the teacher to address a particular problem as it stops the momentum and the lesson cannot pick up its pace again. Another problem is that some students do not have any disciplinary problems, but they are “zoning” during the lesson, more or less sleeping with their eyes open. When the teacher calls on anyone to solve a problem on the board or read a passage, the person is caught unawares and further wastes time by (A) waking up from their daydream, (B) realize what the teacher is asking, (C)recall what they learned, if they have, (D)and commence hesitantly.
In my opinion, these people should be sent out of the class, to stand at the back of the classroom, serve detention, notifying their parents, setting them extra work, or to confiscate whatever distracting materials they have under their desks, or having any of the combinations. The teacher should not stop the lesson at all and must deal the punishment without any margin for argument or protest. By saying this I have doomed myself to eternal attention at lessons as I cannot bear the humiliation, that is still for the better, I hope.
What can I do as a son to improve the relationship between my mother and father?
As a child, there is a limited amount of effort I can put into improving the relationship between my parents as they need to work things out themselves. In this age of realism, married couples are unable to maintain their relationship by just love. The things that most people are concerned about are financial distresses, as inflation and recessions kick in, parents worry about how to pay the bill, how to pay school fees, how to get a new job, et cetera. As a result, parents have less time to spend with their kids, being more concerned about their material needs than their psychological requirements. The children are distanced from their parents, and there is a huge gap between them that keeps getting bigger, filling up with all the things they do not want to tell each other. Thus the child has no way to help the parents, and this is not getting any easier as parents treat their youngsters as ignorant children who has no notion of what makes a marriage work.
What a child should do is to work hard in school and stay away from harmful things, not letting his parents worry about him and focus on themselves for the moment. Many parents do not have time to care about their child and their financial problems at the same time, and gets frustrated enough to not be able to do both. As we are already teenagers in secondary schools, we have the ability to organize family outings for the whole family to reconnect and relax. It need not be an expensive dinner at a hotel, but maybe a picnic at the beach. As a child, or teenager, our job is to study hard and not let our parents worry about us, instead of making money. That is the responsibility of our parents and we should make it easier for them.
Many families are also split up as one of the parents is no longer loyal to the family and the classic tale of infidelity plays out. This is not only the disloyal parent’s fault, but also the rest of the family’s fault as they could not make him (let’s assume it’s the father) feel wanted at home and thus leaves his unwelcoming home. Just married couples have children as they feel that children bring joy to the family, and this is how it should be. When your father or mother comes home, greet them with open arms and a big smile, comfort them if they are unhappy, and most importantly, respect their opinions. Parents will feel that they are wanted in the house and a sense of belonging to the family.
These are just some basic ways to keep a family closely knitted together, as each family is different from another; it is foolish to say that there is a universal equation of a happy family. What all families need, is trust between its members, and the willingness to help each other.
What a child should do is to work hard in school and stay away from harmful things, not letting his parents worry about him and focus on themselves for the moment. Many parents do not have time to care about their child and their financial problems at the same time, and gets frustrated enough to not be able to do both. As we are already teenagers in secondary schools, we have the ability to organize family outings for the whole family to reconnect and relax. It need not be an expensive dinner at a hotel, but maybe a picnic at the beach. As a child, or teenager, our job is to study hard and not let our parents worry about us, instead of making money. That is the responsibility of our parents and we should make it easier for them.
Many families are also split up as one of the parents is no longer loyal to the family and the classic tale of infidelity plays out. This is not only the disloyal parent’s fault, but also the rest of the family’s fault as they could not make him (let’s assume it’s the father) feel wanted at home and thus leaves his unwelcoming home. Just married couples have children as they feel that children bring joy to the family, and this is how it should be. When your father or mother comes home, greet them with open arms and a big smile, comfort them if they are unhappy, and most importantly, respect their opinions. Parents will feel that they are wanted in the house and a sense of belonging to the family.
These are just some basic ways to keep a family closely knitted together, as each family is different from another; it is foolish to say that there is a universal equation of a happy family. What all families need, is trust between its members, and the willingness to help each other.
No Smoke without Fire
People take up smoking for the surge of pleasure and adrenalin at the first puff. It gradually gives a hazy yet enjoyable experience, through the drug nicotine. In social occasions, it feels more respectful to accept a cigarette from one’s boss, especially if everyone is smoking. Friends and influence from parents also affects one’s preference to smoking. Many people disclosed that they were persuaded to smoke by their friends who are smokers or having a thick fog in their houses, created by parents who pass on this undesirable habit.
I think it is a good idea that smoking was banned from public places. In fact, I feel that smoking should be made illegal. Smoking is the burning of a rolled-up packet of tobacco and other chemicals, releasing gases of high toxicity, breathing in these gases, absorbing them into the bloodstream, letting them flow to the head, to daze oneself, and overall just barbecuing the respiratory system and making us (pun intended) smoked ducks. As such many people will not refrain from smoking in pubs due to the lack of enforcing agents. The pub owners also do not want to ward away potential customers.
Firstly, I think that people rarely smoke while they drive since most are very careful about the cleanliness of their Hyundai. Nevertheless, on highways truck drivers can be seen driving with their cigarette in their hand outside the window and steering with one hand. I think this rule to ban “smoke driving” should be enforced as nicotine is a relaxant drug as well as alcohol and the reactions of the drivers would slow down, perhaps causing some accidents that could be avoided. Passengers should be banned from smoking as well as the drivers might be inhaling second hand smoke which is more toxic than regular smoke due to the absence of a filter.
The most I could do in that situation is to alert nearby security officers. The smoker might not be very benevolent to me if I approached him to stop smoking since he has already ignored the “No Smoking” sign.
I think smoking should not be associated with sports since sportsmen do not smoke as the practice damages the physical condition of athletes. As stated in the second paragraph, I would like the activity of all activities associated with smoking to be banned, so there would not be any need for cigarette advertising, would there?
I think this is not useful as smokers mostly understood the dangers of smoking but succumbs to it nonetheless. It is no more a reminder of the hazards of smoking than the disapproving glance from passer-bys.
I do not agree with the age limit as most children are still in their studying age, interacting with other teenagers. They are the most susceptible to the addiction, being in touch with students whom some are not conscious of the dangers of smoking and spread this ‘fun’ thing amongst their peers. The age limit should be placed at 25, where most people have all grown to both mental and physical maturity, having learnt and studied the effects of smoking, and are able to make decisions for themselves.
It is the fault of both parties. Tobacco companies should not advertise their harmful products so extensively. The smoker should not smoke in the first place. In my point of view, the company pays part of the medical fees of the smoker, but the smoker pays for the major part of his medicine.
I think it is a good idea that smoking was banned from public places. In fact, I feel that smoking should be made illegal. Smoking is the burning of a rolled-up packet of tobacco and other chemicals, releasing gases of high toxicity, breathing in these gases, absorbing them into the bloodstream, letting them flow to the head, to daze oneself, and overall just barbecuing the respiratory system and making us (pun intended) smoked ducks. As such many people will not refrain from smoking in pubs due to the lack of enforcing agents. The pub owners also do not want to ward away potential customers.
Firstly, I think that people rarely smoke while they drive since most are very careful about the cleanliness of their Hyundai. Nevertheless, on highways truck drivers can be seen driving with their cigarette in their hand outside the window and steering with one hand. I think this rule to ban “smoke driving” should be enforced as nicotine is a relaxant drug as well as alcohol and the reactions of the drivers would slow down, perhaps causing some accidents that could be avoided. Passengers should be banned from smoking as well as the drivers might be inhaling second hand smoke which is more toxic than regular smoke due to the absence of a filter.
The most I could do in that situation is to alert nearby security officers. The smoker might not be very benevolent to me if I approached him to stop smoking since he has already ignored the “No Smoking” sign.
I think smoking should not be associated with sports since sportsmen do not smoke as the practice damages the physical condition of athletes. As stated in the second paragraph, I would like the activity of all activities associated with smoking to be banned, so there would not be any need for cigarette advertising, would there?
I think this is not useful as smokers mostly understood the dangers of smoking but succumbs to it nonetheless. It is no more a reminder of the hazards of smoking than the disapproving glance from passer-bys.
I do not agree with the age limit as most children are still in their studying age, interacting with other teenagers. They are the most susceptible to the addiction, being in touch with students whom some are not conscious of the dangers of smoking and spread this ‘fun’ thing amongst their peers. The age limit should be placed at 25, where most people have all grown to both mental and physical maturity, having learnt and studied the effects of smoking, and are able to make decisions for themselves.
It is the fault of both parties. Tobacco companies should not advertise their harmful products so extensively. The smoker should not smoke in the first place. In my point of view, the company pays part of the medical fees of the smoker, but the smoker pays for the major part of his medicine.
Beethoven Symphony No.9
The Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125 is the last complete symphony composed by Ludwig van Beethoven. Completed in 1824, it incorporates part of the Ode an die Freude ("Ode To Joy"), a poem by Friedrich Schiller, with text sung by soloists and a chorus in the last movement. Beethoven had wanted to set Schiller's 'Ode to Joy' to music for many years, and in fact later stated that he had wished to write an alternative instrumental ending to the Ninth Symphony, leaving an interpretation of the 'Ode to Joy' as a separate work. Schiller’s famous words state that in a new age the old ways will no longer divide people and that “all men shall become brothers.” Since its premiere in Vienna in May 1824, performances of the Ninth Symphony have become almost sacramental occasions, as musicians and audiences alike are exhorted to universal fraternity.
The symphony is sometimes referred to as "Choral", pointing to the vocal end of the symphony. This symphony is one of the best known of all works of European classical music, and is considered one of Beethoven's greatest masterpieces, composed while he was completely deaf. Due to the universal appeal of this symphony, it is now part of the UNESCO's Memory of the World Register. Further testament to its prominence is that an original manuscript of this work sold in 2003 for 3.3 million U.S. dollars. As the ultimate “feel good” piece, the Ninth has been used at various openings of the Olympic Games, bringing all nations together in song. Its melody is the official anthem of the European Union. The Ninth has also appeared on many solemn occasions. Protestors played the Ninth in Tiananmen Square in Beijing; German students did it too during the fall of the Berlin Wall. There were many performances in the wake of 9/11, when the Ninth was once again enlisted for its universal and hopeful message. The remarkable world-wide broadcast of Leonard Bernstein performing the Ninth in Berlin on Christmas Day 1989, soon after the city’s reuniting, was memorable to many. Leading an international orchestra and chorus made up of musicians from east and west, Bernstein changed Schiller’s text from an “Ode to Joy” (An die Freude) to an “Ode to Freedom” (An die Freiheit). This alteration was certainly appropriate given the circumstances; what many in the audience may not have realized was that freedom exactly captures what the poem is about.
The opening of the first movement (Allegro ma non troppo, un poco maestoso) grows out of a void. Against the murmurings of the low strings emerge falling fifths in the violins that grow to a loud and imposing first theme; it has all been likened to the creation of the. Beethoven switched the expected order of movements by placing the scherzo (Molto vivace) next. It projects both humor and power with the prominent role given to the timpani. The lyrical slow movement (Adagio molto e cantabile) explores more personal, even spiritual realms.
The Presto finale opens with a fanfare, a dissonant and frantic passage that leads to a “recitative” (so marked in the score) for the cellos and basses. Fragments from the previous three movements pass in review—a few measures of the opening theme of each—but are rejected by the strings. After this strange, extended recitative comes the aria: the famous “Ode to Joy” melody to which later will be added words. After some time the movement starts over again—the fanfare returns, but this time is followed by a vocal recitative with the bass soloist singing. The chorus and four vocal soloists take up the “joy” theme, which undergoes a continuing series of variations. The music reaches a climax with a new theme: “Be embraced, ye millions! … Brothers, above the starry canopy there must dwell a loving Father,” which is later combined in counterpoint with the joy theme and eventually builds to a frenzied coda.
The symphony is sometimes referred to as "Choral", pointing to the vocal end of the symphony. This symphony is one of the best known of all works of European classical music, and is considered one of Beethoven's greatest masterpieces, composed while he was completely deaf. Due to the universal appeal of this symphony, it is now part of the UNESCO's Memory of the World Register. Further testament to its prominence is that an original manuscript of this work sold in 2003 for 3.3 million U.S. dollars. As the ultimate “feel good” piece, the Ninth has been used at various openings of the Olympic Games, bringing all nations together in song. Its melody is the official anthem of the European Union. The Ninth has also appeared on many solemn occasions. Protestors played the Ninth in Tiananmen Square in Beijing; German students did it too during the fall of the Berlin Wall. There were many performances in the wake of 9/11, when the Ninth was once again enlisted for its universal and hopeful message. The remarkable world-wide broadcast of Leonard Bernstein performing the Ninth in Berlin on Christmas Day 1989, soon after the city’s reuniting, was memorable to many. Leading an international orchestra and chorus made up of musicians from east and west, Bernstein changed Schiller’s text from an “Ode to Joy” (An die Freude) to an “Ode to Freedom” (An die Freiheit). This alteration was certainly appropriate given the circumstances; what many in the audience may not have realized was that freedom exactly captures what the poem is about.
The opening of the first movement (Allegro ma non troppo, un poco maestoso) grows out of a void. Against the murmurings of the low strings emerge falling fifths in the violins that grow to a loud and imposing first theme; it has all been likened to the creation of the. Beethoven switched the expected order of movements by placing the scherzo (Molto vivace) next. It projects both humor and power with the prominent role given to the timpani. The lyrical slow movement (Adagio molto e cantabile) explores more personal, even spiritual realms.
The Presto finale opens with a fanfare, a dissonant and frantic passage that leads to a “recitative” (so marked in the score) for the cellos and basses. Fragments from the previous three movements pass in review—a few measures of the opening theme of each—but are rejected by the strings. After this strange, extended recitative comes the aria: the famous “Ode to Joy” melody to which later will be added words. After some time the movement starts over again—the fanfare returns, but this time is followed by a vocal recitative with the bass soloist singing. The chorus and four vocal soloists take up the “joy” theme, which undergoes a continuing series of variations. The music reaches a climax with a new theme: “Be embraced, ye millions! … Brothers, above the starry canopy there must dwell a loving Father,” which is later combined in counterpoint with the joy theme and eventually builds to a frenzied coda.
Compare J.S. Bach’s influence on Baroque music to two other composers of your choice.
In Bach’s lifetime, he was able to exhibit most of the different musical structures in the period, except opera, this made his works into examples and references that influenced other composers. Few other composers have been to do what he did, encompassing such a wide range of musical genres, incorporating different foreign influences to create almost entirely new forms that are unique to the Baroque period. By composing such a large number of works, ranging from fugues for keyboards to concertos for orchestra, from oratorios for choirs and masses for the masses, he was able to bring the Baroque period to its greatest. The year of his death was considered by many musicologists to be the end of the Baroque period; this signifies how influential Bach has been on the musical style of that era.
The works of Vivaldi display much exuberance, contrasting directly with the dignified seriousness of Baroque music at that time. Vivaldi's music is innovative, breaking a consolidated tradition in schemes; he gave brightness to the formal and the rhythmic structure of the concerto, repeatedly looking for harmonic contrasts and invented innovative melodies and themes. He was also able to compose entertaining music, particularly meant to be appreciated by the wide public and not only by aristocrats and other professional musicians. In Vivaldi’s works, a transmissible joy of composing can be seen from the joyful appearance of his music. This was also a cause of the great popularity of his music, particularly in France, where musical taste was very independent at that time. Vivaldi is considered one of the composers who brought Baroque music (with its typical contrast among heavy sonorities) to evolve into a classical style through its typical contrast with the heavy contrast among heavy sonorities. Johann Sebastian Bach was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his Passions and cantatas). Bach transcribed a number of Vivaldi's concertos for solo keyboard, along with a number for orchestra, including the famous Concerto for Four Violins and Violoncello, Strings and Continuo.
Rameau wanted very much to be renowned as a theorist of music and his exceptional technical knowledge of a composer characterized his works. Nevertheless it is not solely addressed to the intelligence and Rameau himself claimed “I try to conceal art with art”. The problem was that the music was new, using techniques never known before, but it took place within the framework of old-fashioned forms; Rameau’s contemporaries classified him as revolutionary and reactionary, as they were disturbed by the complex harmony of his music, paid attention to its content and some even refused to listen to the sound it produced. This stopped Rameau repeating such daring experiments as the second Trio des Parques in Hippolyte et Aricie, which he was forced to remove after a handful of performances because the singers were unable to interpret it correctly. So the greatest harmonist of his era went unrecognized at the very time that harmony was taking precedence over counterpoint.
The works of Vivaldi display much exuberance, contrasting directly with the dignified seriousness of Baroque music at that time. Vivaldi's music is innovative, breaking a consolidated tradition in schemes; he gave brightness to the formal and the rhythmic structure of the concerto, repeatedly looking for harmonic contrasts and invented innovative melodies and themes. He was also able to compose entertaining music, particularly meant to be appreciated by the wide public and not only by aristocrats and other professional musicians. In Vivaldi’s works, a transmissible joy of composing can be seen from the joyful appearance of his music. This was also a cause of the great popularity of his music, particularly in France, where musical taste was very independent at that time. Vivaldi is considered one of the composers who brought Baroque music (with its typical contrast among heavy sonorities) to evolve into a classical style through its typical contrast with the heavy contrast among heavy sonorities. Johann Sebastian Bach was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his Passions and cantatas). Bach transcribed a number of Vivaldi's concertos for solo keyboard, along with a number for orchestra, including the famous Concerto for Four Violins and Violoncello, Strings and Continuo.
Rameau wanted very much to be renowned as a theorist of music and his exceptional technical knowledge of a composer characterized his works. Nevertheless it is not solely addressed to the intelligence and Rameau himself claimed “I try to conceal art with art”. The problem was that the music was new, using techniques never known before, but it took place within the framework of old-fashioned forms; Rameau’s contemporaries classified him as revolutionary and reactionary, as they were disturbed by the complex harmony of his music, paid attention to its content and some even refused to listen to the sound it produced. This stopped Rameau repeating such daring experiments as the second Trio des Parques in Hippolyte et Aricie, which he was forced to remove after a handful of performances because the singers were unable to interpret it correctly. So the greatest harmonist of his era went unrecognized at the very time that harmony was taking precedence over counterpoint.
how the themes are presented differently in the Concerto Grosso and the Fugue.
In the fugue, the theme (subject) is presented as a whole, by the different voices
and parts. The four voices in the fugue take no precedence over each other, and take
turns to play the subject/countersubject. A fugue opens with one main theme, the subject,
which then sounds successively in each voice in imitation; when each voice has entered,
the exposition is complete; this is occasionally followed by a connecting passage, or
episode, developed from previously heard material; further "entries" of the subject then
are heard in related keys. Episodes (if applicable) and entries are usually alternated until
the "final entry" of the subject, by which point the music has returned to the opening key,
or tonic, which is often followed by closing material, the coda. In this sense, fugue is a
style of composition, rather than fixed structure. The main theme of a fugue is the subject.
The subject is then passed around to different instruments, mirrored, and often played in
conjunction with a counter-subject.
In a concerto grosso, in ritornello form, the theme (ritornello) is presented first as
a complete whole and then returns in fragments and variations after the soloist plays a
concertino. In the concerto grosso, only the concertino ever plays the solo and the roles
between the parts are fixed. the concerto grosso features a group of soloists rather than voices.. The rest of the orchestra (called "tutti" or ripieno") accompanies and plays in between phrases featuring the soloists.
and parts. The four voices in the fugue take no precedence over each other, and take
turns to play the subject/countersubject. A fugue opens with one main theme, the subject,
which then sounds successively in each voice in imitation; when each voice has entered,
the exposition is complete; this is occasionally followed by a connecting passage, or
episode, developed from previously heard material; further "entries" of the subject then
are heard in related keys. Episodes (if applicable) and entries are usually alternated until
the "final entry" of the subject, by which point the music has returned to the opening key,
or tonic, which is often followed by closing material, the coda. In this sense, fugue is a
style of composition, rather than fixed structure. The main theme of a fugue is the subject.
The subject is then passed around to different instruments, mirrored, and often played in
conjunction with a counter-subject.
In a concerto grosso, in ritornello form, the theme (ritornello) is presented first as
a complete whole and then returns in fragments and variations after the soloist plays a
concertino. In the concerto grosso, only the concertino ever plays the solo and the roles
between the parts are fixed. the concerto grosso features a group of soloists rather than voices.. The rest of the orchestra (called "tutti" or ripieno") accompanies and plays in between phrases featuring the soloists.
How Bach contributed to the rise of Baroque period.
Bach was fluent in contrapuntal inventions and motivic control. With his ability to improvise keyboard music, his exposure to German, Italian and French music, and his devotion his religion, he had refined repeatedly his personal music style. His was able to gain access to musicians, scores and instruments when he was young, and this gave him a foundation to develop his own style.
He was able to inject foreign influences to intensify the pre-existing German music. Throughout the earlier stages of his life, he became more skillful in organizing large-scale musical ideas and enhancing the limited complexity of counterpoint. When a large repertoire of Italian music became available to him during his stay at Weimar, he absorbed the dramatic openings, clear melodic lines, the sharp outlines of their bass lines, rhythmic conciseness, and more clearly articulated schemes for modulation. This soon became a signature of Baroque music, and although composers like Shostakovich uses the Baroque forms and genres to write pieces, they are not completely Baroque.
There are several more specific features of Bach's influence on Baroque style. Composers were assumed to write out only the basic framework of the melodic lines, and the performer or player would insert a variety of ornaments, embellishing and elaborating on the basic notation. Bach, in his pieces, particularly the fast movements, notated most of the details of his melodic lines, giving the performer no freedom to interpolate. He was regarded as the extreme end of the spectrum as this practice of notation varied between different music schools. This may have helped him control the dense contrapuntal textures which did not allow performers to spontaneously vary the musical lines.
Bach’s devotion to his tradition and the high demand for religious music placed sacred music at the centre of his repertory; masses, chorale hymn tunes, were the basis of much of his output. He gave the chorale prelude a tightly integrated architecture, in which the interval patterns and melody of the tune was a dense, contrapuntal lattice against relatively slow-moving, overarching statements of the tune. Bach's deep knowledge of liturgy gave him an intricate relationship between music and linguistic text. Beyond these specific musical features arising from Bach’s religious affiliation is the fact that he was able to produce music for an audience that was committed to serious, regular worship, for which a concentrated density and complexity was accepted.
He preferred not to pursue more dramatic musical innovations, but was inclined to reinvigorate existing forms. Thus, Bach’s genius was almost entirely directed towards working within the structures he inherited. Keyboard music occupied a central position in his output throughout his life, and he made the keyboard a solo instrument in his numerous harpsichord concertos and chamber music with keyboard obbligato. Many of his keyboard preludes can be freely improvised to display virtuosity, although they get more and more cogent as he aged. He was driven to encompass whole genres by producing collections of movements that thoroughly explore the possibilities inherent in those genres. The most famous examples are the two books of the Well Tempered Clavier, each of which presents a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key, in which a variety of contrapuntal and fugal techniques are displayed.
In Bach’s lifetime, he was able to exhibit most of the different musical structures in the period, except opera, this made his works into examples and references that influenced other composers. Few other composers have been to do what he did, encompassing such a wide range of musical genres, incorporating different foreign influences to create almost entirely new forms that are unique to the Baroque period. By composing such a large number of works, ranging from fugues for keyboards to concertos for orchestra, from oratorios for choirs and masses for the masses, he was able to bring the Baroque period to its greatest. The year of his death was considered by many musicologists to be the end of the Baroque period; this signifies how influential Bach has been on the musical style of that era.
He was able to inject foreign influences to intensify the pre-existing German music. Throughout the earlier stages of his life, he became more skillful in organizing large-scale musical ideas and enhancing the limited complexity of counterpoint. When a large repertoire of Italian music became available to him during his stay at Weimar, he absorbed the dramatic openings, clear melodic lines, the sharp outlines of their bass lines, rhythmic conciseness, and more clearly articulated schemes for modulation. This soon became a signature of Baroque music, and although composers like Shostakovich uses the Baroque forms and genres to write pieces, they are not completely Baroque.
There are several more specific features of Bach's influence on Baroque style. Composers were assumed to write out only the basic framework of the melodic lines, and the performer or player would insert a variety of ornaments, embellishing and elaborating on the basic notation. Bach, in his pieces, particularly the fast movements, notated most of the details of his melodic lines, giving the performer no freedom to interpolate. He was regarded as the extreme end of the spectrum as this practice of notation varied between different music schools. This may have helped him control the dense contrapuntal textures which did not allow performers to spontaneously vary the musical lines.
Bach’s devotion to his tradition and the high demand for religious music placed sacred music at the centre of his repertory; masses, chorale hymn tunes, were the basis of much of his output. He gave the chorale prelude a tightly integrated architecture, in which the interval patterns and melody of the tune was a dense, contrapuntal lattice against relatively slow-moving, overarching statements of the tune. Bach's deep knowledge of liturgy gave him an intricate relationship between music and linguistic text. Beyond these specific musical features arising from Bach’s religious affiliation is the fact that he was able to produce music for an audience that was committed to serious, regular worship, for which a concentrated density and complexity was accepted.
He preferred not to pursue more dramatic musical innovations, but was inclined to reinvigorate existing forms. Thus, Bach’s genius was almost entirely directed towards working within the structures he inherited. Keyboard music occupied a central position in his output throughout his life, and he made the keyboard a solo instrument in his numerous harpsichord concertos and chamber music with keyboard obbligato. Many of his keyboard preludes can be freely improvised to display virtuosity, although they get more and more cogent as he aged. He was driven to encompass whole genres by producing collections of movements that thoroughly explore the possibilities inherent in those genres. The most famous examples are the two books of the Well Tempered Clavier, each of which presents a prelude and fugue in every major and minor key, in which a variety of contrapuntal and fugal techniques are displayed.
In Bach’s lifetime, he was able to exhibit most of the different musical structures in the period, except opera, this made his works into examples and references that influenced other composers. Few other composers have been to do what he did, encompassing such a wide range of musical genres, incorporating different foreign influences to create almost entirely new forms that are unique to the Baroque period. By composing such a large number of works, ranging from fugues for keyboards to concertos for orchestra, from oratorios for choirs and masses for the masses, he was able to bring the Baroque period to its greatest. The year of his death was considered by many musicologists to be the end of the Baroque period; this signifies how influential Bach has been on the musical style of that era.
Are Public Military High Schools Good for Teens?
In Chicago, many people debate about the militarization of high schools, since Chicago has the highest number of Public Military High Schools (PMHC). It regards the future of the nation and what the next generation will be like, and the quality of the next generation is fundamentally linked to the system of education. The leaders of these schools claim that the Junior Reserve Officer Training Course (JROTC), present in 33 schools, teaches students discipline and leadership. Non-supporters of the program suggest that these schools are just attempting to lure students into the military after graduation. This essay will discuss some of the arguments put forward by the various parties and organizations. It will also determine why PMHCs are not what is best for teenagers.
Supervisors of the JROTC program claim that the PMHCs give students discipline and leadership skills, through drills and more drills. Drills have more than become a novelty to schools, it has become a necessity. For example, students have to stand at attention during roll call in a crisp uniform until his or her name is called. When people know that someone has been to a PMHC, that person is expected to be a disciplined and obedient individual, a soldier, in short. PMHCs make students into hardy and rugged soldiers who are controlled and obedient.
However, many parents and protesters insist that discipline does not necessary come with a multitude of drills. Discipline need not be synonymous to obedience. Students should learn to be a person with strict principles and morals but not someone who does whatever the sergeant of head officer orders. Discipline will come with maturity. Students should be robust and an innate knowledge of what is wrong and what is right. Instead of drills, experienced educators and programs that teach life skills should be introduced in schools.
In PMHCs, subjects such as naval science are taught to educate students about certain subjects that are not available on the other schools. They learn about wars and have field trips to the naval academies. They learn about the history of US, its battles and wars. The field trips to naval academies also educates them the about the defense of their own nation. These are in addition to the core curriculum of schools, such as: mathematics and English. Their grades are in the average range, but it is acceptable and is rising. The extra subjects do not impede the development of the students’ knowledge and intelligence.
The subjects associated with military that was just mentioned are targets of protestors. It is argued that too much of the students’ time is devoted to these subjects that bear a military affiliation. Pupils need to improve and study subjects that they need for occupations such as engineering or medicine.
Many people believe that PMHCs are there to indoctrinate students into the military. This is not wrong as defense is an important part of a nation. The programs are military in nature to let students who are not very books-oriented to have a safe future in the military. But students should be left to make his choice; instead of the school doing all it can to encourage the students to join the military. In an environment where the staff supports military occupation aspirations and peers wanting to join the Army (or the Navy; or the Air Force; or the Marines), it is difficult not to be influenced to converge with the majority. Thus PMHCs make having a wide occupation choice difficult by advocating military-type futures.
In conclusion, these PMHCs should still be open to the public, but adopt a more general and mainstream curriculum. Drills should also be placed at secondary importance. Discipline should still be there. Through these, a much better school, producing much better students, could be achieved.
Supervisors of the JROTC program claim that the PMHCs give students discipline and leadership skills, through drills and more drills. Drills have more than become a novelty to schools, it has become a necessity. For example, students have to stand at attention during roll call in a crisp uniform until his or her name is called. When people know that someone has been to a PMHC, that person is expected to be a disciplined and obedient individual, a soldier, in short. PMHCs make students into hardy and rugged soldiers who are controlled and obedient.
However, many parents and protesters insist that discipline does not necessary come with a multitude of drills. Discipline need not be synonymous to obedience. Students should learn to be a person with strict principles and morals but not someone who does whatever the sergeant of head officer orders. Discipline will come with maturity. Students should be robust and an innate knowledge of what is wrong and what is right. Instead of drills, experienced educators and programs that teach life skills should be introduced in schools.
In PMHCs, subjects such as naval science are taught to educate students about certain subjects that are not available on the other schools. They learn about wars and have field trips to the naval academies. They learn about the history of US, its battles and wars. The field trips to naval academies also educates them the about the defense of their own nation. These are in addition to the core curriculum of schools, such as: mathematics and English. Their grades are in the average range, but it is acceptable and is rising. The extra subjects do not impede the development of the students’ knowledge and intelligence.
The subjects associated with military that was just mentioned are targets of protestors. It is argued that too much of the students’ time is devoted to these subjects that bear a military affiliation. Pupils need to improve and study subjects that they need for occupations such as engineering or medicine.
Many people believe that PMHCs are there to indoctrinate students into the military. This is not wrong as defense is an important part of a nation. The programs are military in nature to let students who are not very books-oriented to have a safe future in the military. But students should be left to make his choice; instead of the school doing all it can to encourage the students to join the military. In an environment where the staff supports military occupation aspirations and peers wanting to join the Army (or the Navy; or the Air Force; or the Marines), it is difficult not to be influenced to converge with the majority. Thus PMHCs make having a wide occupation choice difficult by advocating military-type futures.
In conclusion, these PMHCs should still be open to the public, but adopt a more general and mainstream curriculum. Drills should also be placed at secondary importance. Discipline should still be there. Through these, a much better school, producing much better students, could be achieved.
Friday, May 30, 2008
Marvellous Online Lectures
Recently i would go to a website to see some videos of lectures given by specialists in every field (www.ted.com, perfectly healthy and sanctioned). that got me thinking. you know, whatever we need, anything at all, it can be found on the net. if you are reading this blog, you probably have another tab or window showing google webpages. information is now so easy to come by that we have lost that desire to seek knowledge by hardwork, tedious searches in a library unaided by complex search systems, asking relatives and people senior or more experienced than you to reveal precious knowledge that has been obtained through personal struggles. even as i type these weak words, i can feel like i am broadcasting to the whole cybernet world (but perhaps only a few people with no lives are reading, don't take away my ego). i am not going to say much more, as you probably learn about globalization, economical inflation, social depression, etc. in class, so click that square(winVista) or round(winXP) red button at the top right hand corner of the screen and go play some games (let me guess, DOTA, C&C, CS, or just your handy PSP?) or watch some po......
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